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LLC LIVONIA, Moscow (TIN 7726544437), details, extract from the Unified State Register of Legal Entities, address, mail, website, phone, financial indicators

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The LLC LIVONIA company, address: Moscow, Varshavskoe highway, 85 k. 2, was registered on 11.07.2006. The organization was assigned TIN 7726544437, OGRN 1067746802419, KPP 772601001. The main activity is the activities of restaurants and food delivery services, in total 11 types of activities are registered according to OKVED. There are no connections with other companies.
Number of co-owners (according to the Unified State Register of Legal Entities): 1, General Director – Tezova Yulia Evgenievna. The size of the authorized capital is 11,000 rubles.
LIVONIA LLC did not participate in tenders. There are no enforcement proceedings against the company. LLC LIVONIA did not participate in arbitration cases.
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History: Science and technology: Lenta.ru

Why did Russia try to conquer the Baltic States, unwittingly contributing to the unification of Poland and Lithuania? Why did the Vatican help Ivan the Terrible in peace negotiations with Poland? Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor of St. Petersburg State University Alexander Filyushkin told Lente.ru about the little-known details of the Livonian War of 1558-1583.

Livonian heritage

Tell us, for what purpose did Ivan the Terrible start the Livonian War?

It would not be entirely correct to say that only Russia started this war. It was a fierce battle for the division of the Baltic states between several major powers. Livonia by the middle of the 16th century was a weak and unviable state and was a confederation of the Livonian Order, the lands of the Catholic Church and trading cities. Therefore, Denmark, Sweden, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Poland and Russia joined the struggle for possession of this territory.

But the beginning of the Livonian War is considered to be the invasion of Russian troops into eastern Estonia in January 1558.

The struggle for the division of the Baltic states in the middle of the 16th century began with the Russian-Swedish war of 1555-1557. If we talk about the battle for Livonia, then it all started in 1556, with the war of the Livonian Order with the Archbishop of Riga Wilhelm, in which Poland actively intervened on the side of the archbishop, openly threatening the order with war. As a result, in 1557, Livonia had to sign the enslaving Treaty of Pozvol, which made it dependent on the Polish crown

Our history books say that Ivan the Terrible tried to conquer the Baltic states with the same goal as Peter the Great a century and a half later, for Russia’s access to the Baltic Sea.

Before the start of the Livonian War, Russia already had access to the Baltic Sea. She owned approximately the same territory as now: from the mouth of the Narova (Narva) to the mouth of the Neva. True, now our country also owns the northern coast of the Gulf of Finland up to and including Vyborg.

Another thing is that in the 16th century these were completely wild places, and there is no evidence of the existence of large Russian settlements on the Baltic coast at that time. The ports and all the established and related infrastructure were in neighboring Livonia, so Ivan the Terrible wanted to subordinate all this to himself.

Subjugate or conquer?

Initially there was no goal to conquer Livonia. He tried to turn in his favor all the profits from the maritime trade of the Livonian cities, so initially the Livonian war on the part of Russia was more of an extortionate character.

Our Yuriev

And what did they extort?

In 1554, Russia presented Livonia with a demand for the payment of the so-called “Yuryev tribute”, which, according to the agreement of 1463, the Derpt Archbishopric had to pay Pskov regularly. Tribute was never paid – the Livonians, of course, did not seek to pay it, and the Russians did not insist.

Suddenly, almost a century later, Ivan the Terrible remembered her and demanded not only to resume payments, but also to cover all arrears for previous years. Some historians consider these financial claims only a pretext for the outbreak of war, others believe that if the Livonians were more accommodating, then the conflict could have been avoided.

Why was this tribute called St. George’s?

Derpt (now Tartu – approx. “Lenta.ru” ) was founded in 1030 by Yaroslav the Wise and called it his Christian name – Yuryev. The origin of the tribute is vague, but, apparently, it is somehow connected with the tribute that the Latvians of the Tolova area paid to Yuryev in the Middle Ages.

The first actions of the Russian troops in the winter-spring of 1558 looked more like a racketeering raid than an aggressive campaign. The regiments of the governor Glinsky, Zakharyin-Yuriev and the Tatar cavalry of the Kazan prince Shigalei raided eastern Estonia, burned villages and threatened Livonian cities, demanding payment of money.

Ivan the Terrible. German engraving, 1560s

Everything changed on May 11, 1558, when the Russians unexpectedly took Narva. After that, Ivan the Terrible, apparently, decided that from now on it was possible not only to constantly extort money from the rich trading cities of Livonia, but to own it himself. It was then that the war acquired an aggressive character: Russian troops took Livonian cities one after another, and “Russian Livonia” was created on the occupied lands with a center in Derpt, which was again renamed Yuryev.

Didn’t Ivan the Terrible realize that the war against Livonia, which would radically change the entire balance of power in the region, would unite all its western neighbors against Russia?

Apparently not – and that was his first mistake. The Russian tsar clearly did not anticipate the scale of the future conflict – that such a powerful coalition would form against him. He thought that the war would be quick and local, and that the huge Russian army would crush the Livonian knights without much difficulty. It, of course, happened just like that (by 1560 the Livonian army was destroyed), but after that Livonia turned to Poland for help and according to the Vilna agreements of 1559year and 1561 passed under the guardianship of Poland and Lithuania.

After that, both states went to war with Russia, which Ivan the Terrible clearly did not expect. The Polish-Lithuanian troops occupied southern Livonia, and its northern part with the city of Reval, in order not to fall under Russian rule, swore allegiance to the Swedish king. In Moscow, this was discouraged, since the previous war between Russia and Sweden ended quite recently – in 1557.

How did Denmark intervene in the war?

Denmark was the only country that recognized the Russian conquests in Livonia.

Why?

It was a kind of exchange. In 1559, the brother of the Danish king, Duke Magnus, took possession of the island of Ezel (modern Saaremaa – approx. “Lenta.ru” ), and it was important for Denmark that Russia also recognized this. Magnus will be the only ally of Russia in that war for almost twenty years, and even in Moscow he will be proclaimed the king of Livonia, but in 1578 he will go over to the side of Poland.

Creation of the Commonwealth

You once said that Poland still considers itself the savior of Lithuania from the Muscovite conquest in the 16th century.

Yes, it is.

What do you think, if Ivan the Terrible had not started to conquer the Baltic states, would it have been possible in 1569 to unite Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into a single state – the Commonwealth?

It is difficult to say exactly when this could have happened, but without the factor of the war with Russia, this would hardly have happened exactly in 1569. Starting from the first frontier war of 1487-1494, Russia throughout the first half of the 16th century constantly captured the vast territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania – Bryansk, Putivl, Chernigov, Smolensk, and in 1563 also captured Polotsk.

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was militarily much weaker than Russia and, despite some successes, was constantly defeated. If it were not for the unification with Poland, which radically changed the balance of power in the war, Russia would have moved further westward, expanding at the expense of the lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Painting by Jan Matejko “Union of Lublin”. 1869

Poland really helped Lithuania survive and even eventually win the war, but at the same time it successfully took advantage of the situation. Union of Lublin 1569years, many in Lithuania caused a skeptical, if not negative, reaction. For example, in a painting dedicated to this event by the famous 19th-century Polish artist Jan Matejko, Lithuanian delegates are depicted crying and mourning the death of their state. This is not surprising, since Lithuania was not only forced to unite with Poland into a federation, but also to give Podlasie, Volhynia, Podolia and Kyiv under the direct authority of the Polish crown.

It turns out that in the end Poland simply swallowed up the Grand Duchy of Lithuania?

The cultural and socio-economic Polonization of Eastern Europe began, while the Union of Lublin laid a huge mine in the foundation of the new state. The Commonwealth was a federation of only two “political peoples”: Poles and Lithuanians. Orthodox Rusyns, who made up the majority of the population of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, found themselves out of work in this state.

The modern Ukrainian historian Natalya Yakovenko very accurately noted that the Rusyns have become an extra wheel in the cart of the Commonwealth. This further led to the fact that they tried to defend their rights – as a result, after a few decades, the Commonwealth received the Khmelnitsky uprising and the Pereyaslav Rada.

How Moscow outwitted the Vatican

What do you think is the reason for Russia’s military failures at the final stage of the Livonian War, when it almost lost not only Livonia, but the entire Pskov land?

Firstly, the Polish king Stefan Batory as a commander was much stronger than Ivan the Terrible. He managed to create a strong and efficient army, in which experienced and well-armed mercenaries from all over Europe played a significant role: Germans, Hungarians, French, Italians and even Scots.

Secondly, the moral and psychological climate in the Russian army was not conducive to the manifestation of any initiative by the governors. Ivan the Terrible and his entourage instilled an atmosphere of general suspicion, denunciation and spy mania, which sharply reduced the combat effectiveness of the troops. Everyone remembered that Prince Mikhail Vorotynsky, the winner of the Crimean Tatars at the Battle of Molodi in 1572, when the fate of Russia hung in the balance, was tortured to death a few months later on false charges of plotting against the tsar.

Portrait of Stefan Batory, artist unknown. 1576

Is it true that Russia, shortly before the siege of Pskov in 1581, promised the Pope of Rome to accept union with the Catholic Church if the Vatican persuaded Batory to make peace?

Partly true, but everything was more complicated. At the end of 1580, the Russian ambassador Istoma Shevrigin arrived in Rome, who, at an audience with the pontiff, really hinted that Russia was ready to discuss the question of the union, but did not make any specific promises. In September 1581, the papal legate Antonio Possevino became a mediator in peace negotiations between Russia and Poland. His mission was to end the war as quickly as possible. He constantly put pressure on the Poles, forcing them to abandon demands that were completely unacceptable to Moscow.

As a result, Russia was able to end the war with minimal losses: it lost all of Livonia, but retained almost all Russian lands, including Pskov and Velikiye Luki. This was a major success for Russian diplomacy, since Batory could not give them away, and Russia no longer had the strength to recapture the territories occupied by the Poles.

That is, it could happen that Novgorod and Pskov would go to Poland, and the Russian-Polish border would pass approximately near Rzhev?

In that difficult situation for Russia, it was absolutely real.

How about a union with the Vatican?

The same question was asked by Possevino to Ivan the Terrible when, after the armistice with Poland, he arrived in Moscow. But the Russian tsar answered him that “your dad is a real wolf,” and the disgraced papal envoy had to go back to the Vatican without salty slurping. For the rest of his life, Possevino wrote essays about the wild, terrible and barbaric Muscovy, with which it is absolutely impossible to have any business.

Karl Bryullov, “The Siege of Pskov by the Polish King Stefan Batory in 1581”. 1839-1843 years

“Muscovites” and “Litvins”

What were the consequences of the Livonian War for the political map of Europe besides the creation of the Commonwealth?

First, Livonia was destroyed, whose territory was divided by the Commonwealth, Denmark and Sweden. It was Sweden that became the main beneficiary of this war, turning into a major military power. Secondly, the Livonian War laid the foundation for a protracted Swedish-Polish conflict over the Baltic states, which in the 17th century would lead to the famous “Swedish Flood” – the Swedish invasion of Poland, which dealt a heavy blow to the Polish state.

And in the inner life of Russia?

Many historians believe that it was the widespread ruin and flight of peasants from the central regions of the country caused by the war that led to the establishment of serfdom in Russia. And of course, the socio-economic crisis, caused, among other things, by the Livonian War, became the main reason for the subsequent largest cataclysm in Russian history – the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century. By the way, the active Polish intervention in these events was largely due to the dizziness from the successes that arose among the Polish-Lithuanian gentry after the victory in the Livonian War. In the Commonwealth they decided: Russia is such a weak enemy that it can be easily finished off.

What role did the war play in shaping the national identity of the peoples participating in it?

The Livonian War contributed a lot to the ethno-cultural delimitation of the inhabitants of Russia and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Orthodox population of both states considered themselves Russians (or Ruthenians), while denying each other this name. For example, the Lithuanian subjects of their eastern neighbors called nothing more than “Muscovites”.

Belarusian historian Igor Marzalyuk recently found interesting data on the slave trade in Mogilev during the Livonian War, in which there are such phrases as “moskal girl”, “bought a moskal”, “sold a moskal”. The residents of Mogilev called themselves Russians, and did not consider it shameful to sell “Muscovites” into slavery. On our side of the border, they also did not consider their western neighbors to be Russians, we called them “Litvins”, “Lithuanians of the courtyard” – in some sources it is said: “Litvin of the courtyard Ivan Petrov”.

The Livonian War showed that Orthodox Russian people can not only successfully trade with each other, but also calmly kill each other. It led not only to mutual bitterness, but also to ethno-cultural confrontation between different parts of the formerly unified ethno-confessional community. This process continued later – during the Time of Troubles, the Khmelnytsky uprising and numerous Russian-Polish wars of the 17th century. Differences and mutual distrust of peoples were forged in wars.

Stefan Batory’s anti-Kremlin propaganda

European sources often talk about the fierce cruelty of Russians in the Baltics, about excesses and violence against the local population. To what extent was this true?

In the 16th century, all wars were very cruel, in Europe the belligerents were also not distinguished by special humanism. Ivan the Terrible spared no one – neither his subjects nor strangers – therefore, during the Livonian campaigns, there was everything. On the other hand, after the capture of Velikiye Luki by Stefan Batory in 1580, his European mercenaries perpetrated a terrible massacre in the city, in which more than seven thousand Russian civilians died. According to the memoirs of contemporaries, the hooves of the Polish cavalry on the city pavements were drowning in streams of human blood.

It is another matter that rumors of unimaginable atrocities committed by the Russians became part of a skillful and effective Polish propaganda campaign. Stefan Batory quickly realized that in order to motivate his army for war, it is necessary to demonize the image of the enemy as much as possible, presenting him as a fiend.

“Very vile, terrible, hitherto unheard of, true new news, what atrocities the Muscovites are committing with the captive Christians from Livonia.” Georg Breslein, Nuremberg, “Flying Leaf”, 1561

Image: Wikipedia

The Polish king had a camp printing press in his wagon train, which, after each major battle, printed “flying sheets” telling about the successes of Polish weapons, as well as about the savagery and bestial ferocity of the Muscovites. In the future, this printed matter was distributed in huge editions throughout Europe, forming anti-Russian public opinion there. The Livonian War in this sense contributed a lot to the alienation of Europe from Russia.

Could Russia oppose anything to this?

No, it could not, because Russia did not have its own printing press due to its technological backwardness. Ivan Fedorov tried to open the first printing house in Moscow, but he, as a result of intrigues, had to flee to Lvov.

How did Europe perceive Russia at that time?

The American historian Larry Wolf wrote that “if Russia did not exist, the West would have to invent it.” Europe needed a clear image of its antipode – a kind of “anti-Europe”, the role of which was first chosen by Ottoman Turkey, and since the Livonian War – Russia. It was most convenient for Europeans to describe the essence of their own world through denunciation of the negative qualities of their neighbors – sometimes real, but often invented.

Alas, this cultural mechanism continues to operate to this day. Europe will look positively at Russia only when it has a truly terrible and dangerous enemy that will eclipse all negative stereotypes about our country. Although it is not clear what is worse – to be an eternal scarecrow for Europe or to face such an enemy together with it.

Livonia – what country is this? Modern name, location and territory of

• September 2, 2019
• Countries
• Nikita Boyarsky

Livonians – Finnish nationality originally from Latvia. Historically they inhabited the region along the coast of the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Riga in Latvia and moved even deeper along the Daugava. Over time, the region in which Livonian was spoken continued to shrink. In the 20th century, before World War II, Livonians lived in a number of villages in the north of Kurzeme, in the far northwest of Latvia. During this time, Livonian was still the language used by all generations. Let’s find out what kind of country is Livonia?

Early history

Livonians speak a language closely related to Finnish and Estonian and more distantly to Hungarian. It is a member of the Finno-Ugric language family, which, along with the Samoyedic languages, forms the Uralic language family. The latter, in turn, extends from Scandinavia east through Northern Siberia and south to Central Europe, where the Hungarian language is spoken.

Originally the name “Livonia” specifically referred to the land inhabited by the Livonian people. It first appears in an 11th-century runic inscription in Sweden. In the 12th century, the Livonian people are mentioned in the chronicle of Nestor as lib ‘or lyub’ and are presented as a people paying tribute to Russia.

At the turn of the 13th century, the arrival of German traders and missionaries to Livonian lands also marked the beginning of the earliest recorded history of the Livonian people. The most famous record will be the Livonian Chronicle of Heinrich. Covering the time period from the eighth decade of the 11th century to 1227, it records the conquest of the Baltic and Livonian lands by the Germans and the Teutonic Knights.

Livonia – Country Terra Mariana

As inhabitants of the coast, the Livonians were among the first to encounter foreigners arriving by sea. By the end of the 12th century, German missionaries and merchants began to pour into the Livonian lands. Around 1164, the monk Meinhard arrived with a group of merchants. He worked both as a confessor and as an accountant for this group. Shortly after his arrival, he learned Livonian and sought out converts among the Livonians he encountered. Meinhard built the first church in Livonia, in the city of Ukskula (Latvian Ikšile, meaning “one city”), and in 1186 he became the first bishop of Livonia. Below is Livonia on a 13th century map.

By the middle of the 13th century, a new state was created – Livonia. This will become the second geographic feature to be known by this name. Livonia, however, began to include land not inhabited by the Livonians themselves. By the end of the 13th century it had become a confederation of what were in fact five feudal states (four bishoprics and a land ruled by the Teutonic Knights). Pope Innocent III declared that Livonia is the land of Saint Mary (Terra Mariana, Terra Matris or Terra beate Virgini).

One Livonia collapses, another emerges

What country was Livonia during the period of confederation? The Livonian Confederation lasted until the middle of the sixteenth century, when the Russian Empire used the enmity between the states of the Confederation to its advantage. In 1558, the Russians crossed the Livonian border in the north and captured Narva and Tartu (located in the eastern part of present-day Estonia). The Confederacy was completely taken by surprise by this invasion. The states struggled to mobilize forces they did not have and to arm the Livonian and Latvian peasants. The peasants had long ago become subjects, no better than hired servants or serfs, above all for the German landowners. They weren’t allowed to take weapons for quite some time, so many didn’t know how to use them. In other cases, the landlords refrained from thinking about arming their peasants, fearing that the German peasants would turn against the landowners themselves.

As a result, Russian troops swept through Livonia, and after the last battle in 1560, many cities and fortifications were surrendered to the Russians without a fight. Although the Confederation was over, in 1559 its leaders entered into a defensive agreement with Poland and Lithuania. Polish-Lithuanian troops defeated the Russians in Livonia and captured the entire region with the exception of Tartu. In 1561, the lands that made up the Livonian Confederation largely came under the control of Poland-Lithuania.

Wars and change of hands

After unsuccessful attempts to unite the kingdoms of Sweden and Poland-Lithuania in 1600, a war broke out between the two states. This war, which lasted until 1629, was fought on the territory of Livonia, devastating it. As a result, the peasant population in Livonia and Latvia has declined sharply. In 1629, the borders and definition of Livonia changed for the last time with the cession of Vidzeme and the southern part of present-day Estonia to Sweden. Latgale was left to the Poles, who began to call it Inflantia – the Polish term for Livonia.

What country was Livonia during the period of Swedish rule? During the Swedish period, the life of the peasants did not become much easier. Although they were given certain remedies, by this time the movement and freedom of the peasants were severely restricted as they became legally bound to the estate and the land they worked on.

The situation was no better in the Duchy of Courland (Kurzeme), where the peasants had virtually no rights and were not only tied to the land they worked on, but were completely under the jurisdiction and control of their landowners.

The first national awakening

The arrival of foreign invaders to the Livonian lands six centuries earlier brought nothing but destruction and humiliation to the Livonian people. Where they still lived, they became servants in their own land, and their language, once one of the main languages ​​of the Baltic region, was excluded from all areas of public life, leading to what appeared to be a fast track to disappearance. So it is somewhat of a historical irony that a new breed of outsiders will sow the seeds for the rebirth of the nation’s identity.

For the Livonians, their first great national awakening began as a result of linguistic work on their language in the middle of the nineteenth century. Already at the end of the eighteenth century, similarities and probable relationships between the Estonian, Finnish and Livonian languages ​​were noted by A. V. Gupel in his Topografische Nachrichten. In 1846 the Finnish linguist Andreas Johan Sjögren visited the Livonian communities in both Vidzeme and Kurzeme. He would return to Kurzeme in 1852 to continue his research. At that time, he recorded the presence of 724 Western dialect speakers and 1600 Eastern dialect speakers, for a total of 2324 Liv speakers in Kurzeme. After the death of the scientist, his work was continued by Ferdinand Johann Wiedemann, an Estonian researcher from Tallinn, the capital of modern Estonia.

The Second National Awakening

With the end of World War I and the establishment of the Republic of Latvia in 1918, the ground was set for a significant improvement in the conditions and use of the Liv language in its traditional home on the northern coast of Kurzeme. At the beginning of the twentieth century, there was still a fairly concentrated population of Livonian speakers inhabiting 12 small towns in Northern Kurzeme.

In 1931, Livonian students from the Jelgava Institute, with the financial support of Finland, began to publish a monthly newspaper in the Liv language, Livli. In the same year, Finnish pastor Helle Kalervo Ervio traveled several times to the Livonian coast to celebrate masses in Livonia. Having Livonian as the language of the church on the coast has long been a dream of Livonians working to raise the status of their language in their homeland.

Eventually, Ervio learned the Liv language and came to the coast quite regularly until 1938. Church services in Livonian, as well as the teaching of the Livonian language in the village schools of the coast, were to remain a relatively rare occurrence. However, they too can be seen as a great achievement.

In the late 1930s, the status of the Livonian language reached unprecedented heights, gaining a prominent role in the dynamics of the languages ​​used by the inhabitants of the Livonian coast, which had not existed for seven centuries. At the same time, the Livonians petitioned the Latvian government to create their own Livonian administrative region, which would cover all their villages. It was ultimately unsuccessful. After the Soviet occupation with the militarization of the native region of Livon, further movement on such a project was impossible.

Years of Soviet domination

What country was Livonia during the Soviet regime? As for the Livonians, shortly after the annexation of Latvia to the Soviet Union, the new Soviet government seized the National Hall in Ire (Mazirbe). The Livonian Union and other Livonian organizations were banned, as well as the publication of Livonian books. Everything that has been achieved in previous decades has been uprooted in a few short months, and it is sad to say that this is only the beginning. June 14 19For 41 years, thousands of men, women and children across Latvia were arrested by Soviet authorities, loaded into cattle trucks and deported to slave labor camps in Siberia. This was the start of a policy of ethnic cleansing that the Soviet government would continue to pursue in the Baltic states for the next decade.

The deportations affected the Livonians as well as the Latvians. Apart from some elderly people who remained in their homes on the coast, the Livonians were now completely dispersed. Half of the nation fled during the war, and now they live, intermingled with the Latvian refugee community around the world. The other half were expelled from their ancestral home, and those who were not sent to labor camps in Siberia are now scattered throughout Latvia. The Soviet authorities refused to acknowledge the existence of the Livonian nation and forbade it from being listed as official citizenship in passports and other documents. Livonians who openly spoke their language or tried to teach it to their children were persecuted.

End of Soviet occupation

During the Soviet occupation of Latvia after World War II, the historically Livonian-populated coastline was militarized by the Soviets, making it difficult for civilians to live in the area.